Hinduism

It is the third largest and the oldest religion of the World. No one is actually certain how old is Hinduism but it can be said with certainity that Indus valley civilisation contributed some ideas to Hindu religion. The earliest known Hindu scriptures are the "Vedas". Vedas describe the religion of Aryans, who invaded India around 1500 B.C. The Vedic religion was not Hinduism although hindus consider Vedas as their scriptures. Of the Hindu "Trinity" Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Mahesh (Shiva) the destroyer only Vishnu's name appears in the oldest Vedas. The concept of Trinity dates back to 500 A.D. Around the same time, the importance of goddess began which appears in many forms of Shakti (Shiva's consort). However, Upanishads which were written several hundreds years later have characteristic Hindu ideas of unity of soul with Brahman, karma, reincarnation, and salvation (Moksha- escape from reincarnation). The notion of class and caste which was absent in Vedas starting appearing during this period. Hindus are mainly divided into three groups i) Shivites, who are devoted to Shiva, whom they consider as their creator and preserver of the universe ii) Vaishnavas, who assign the above roles to Vishnu and iii) Shaktas, who worship Shakti. These divisions of Hinduism are not very rigid as in other faiths and it is not strange for people of one belief to mix with others. The Hindus do not form congergations and mostly worship at home. They worship other God and Goddesses as well as these are considered as another reincarnation of main Hindu Gods. As a result, the major Gods and Goddesses are worshiped in many names and forms. Hindus have little missionary feeling because they believe that the proper way to become a Hindu is to born one. Hindu rituals cover all areas of a person's life. Hindu society has a high standard of conduct, with little immorality, crime, or violence.

UNIQUENESS OF HINDUISM

• There are many definitions of the word 'Hindu' based on geography, religion, or politics etc. but none of them is perfect. It is a way of life, therefore, there is no need to define Hinduism. We should simply recognise the fact that Hindu society exists.
• Hinduism is universal and contains different schools of philosophy and religion.
• Hinduism is the oldest religion of the world but it reforms and changes with the demands of the time, thus it is ancient but remains moderm.
• Every Hindu keeps these four objectives in view and tries to achieve them: 1) Duty (Dharma) 2) Material prosperity (artha) 3) Enjoyment (kama) 4) Salvation (moksha)
• Theory of Action (karma): we reap what we sow. We must take responsibility for all actions we do in this life.
  
• To achieve the above objectives life is divided into four segments: 1) Celibacy (bramacharya)- student life i.e. acquiring knowledge. 2) Family life (grihastha)- enjoyment and prosperity and participation in running of society and the nation. 3) Retirement (vanaprastha)- delegate responsibility to younger generation to perform selfless social service. 4) Renunciation (sanyas)- complete renunciation of the world for union with God.

IMPORTANT HINDU PLACES

Char Math

• Jyotirmath (Garhwal-Himalaya)
• Goverdhan (Jagannath puri)
• Shengari (Karnataka)
• Sharda (Dawarika-Gujarat)

Char Kumbhasthal

• Haridwar (Uttar Pradesh)
• Prayag (Allahbad-U.P.)
• Avantika (Ujjain-Madhya Pradesh)
• Nasik (Maharashtra)

Char Dham

• Badrinath (Himalaya)
• Jagannathpuri (Orissa)
• Rameshwar (Tamilnadu)
• Dwarika (Gujarat)

GAYATREE MANTRA

AUM BHOOR BHAVAH SWAH
TAT SAVITUR VARENYAM
BHARGO DEVASYA DHEEMAHI
DHIYO YO NAH PRACHODAYAT

Meaning of Gayatree Mantra

AUM= the protector; BHOOR= who is the basis of the whole universe and who is self existent and; BHUVAH= who is free from all pains and whose contact frees the soul from all troubles; SWAH= exists in different forms in this universe and sustains all. Savitur= He is the creator and energizer of the whole universe; Devasya= the giver of all happiness; Varenyam= worthy of acceptance, the most excellent; Bhargo= pure and purifier. Tat= that very God; Dheemahi= let us embrace, so that; Yo= God may; Prachodayat= direct; Nah= our; Dhiyo= mind and thoughts.

More About Hinduism

Hinduism is the religion of the large majority of the people of India and Nepal and it was cradled mostly in the northern part of othe country and not only it influenced the civilizations of the human race but coloured the thoughts and comforted the hearts of many people even outside this country. It essentially arose as the religion of the Aryanas who settled in the northern India from central Asia which was called in ancient days as Aryavarta, and the originator initiates were mostly the Rishis and Munis as incarnations of God, as held by many,or at least the great souls which had attained a high position in their moral, intellectual and spiritual development. This religion was not only for the training of the entire nature of man and for his intellectual, moral and spiritual growth or evolution but for guidance of him in his life as a citizen in the family, the community and the nation.

It blossomed in a settled society which had security and leisure, as no culture can flourish in a community of nomads who struggle for food and die early of privation. In northern India bound by the high Himalayas on one side and deep seas on the others, there was no danger of outside invasions for a long time and this region washed by the great Ganga and other six or seven rivers had great gifts of nature and bounteous food, forests and cattle wealth and people were not to struggle hard for good living or for power,riches and domination. When pwople were not to waste their energy in finding out a comfortable and secure living, their attention naturally goes to creation of art, developing sciences and for the higher life to live more perfectly in the spirit. The huge forests and open natural expanse provided the devote souls many avenues to wander through and being at peace with themselves they burst forth in song and joyous utterances in praise of the natural forces. Many,thinking men set up ashrams or hermitages for medication on deeper problems of existence. They had an impatience of spiritual love for wisdom and a passion for the saner pursuits of the mind and with this spiritual consciousness they found religious truths.

The account of the orign of Hindu religion began with the Vedic hymns which embody the character and function of the various gods and these hymns passed on from generation to generation orally as in those ancient days, people were ignorant of the art of writing and early inscriptions were at the time of Ashoka in the middle of 3rd BC or the neumismatic avidence of writing came in during the invasion of Alexander. The records of sacred literature of the non-Aryan races of south india also were known after they came in contact with the Hindus of north India in the 100 BC, according to some authorities.

The Vedic gods mentioned in the vedic hymns, were said to control the chief anergies of nature. The ancient Rishis or religious personalities having been impressed by the natural forces and facts had a sense of awe,admiration, helplessness and wonder towards them and burst forth in songs or uttrances called as hymns in praise of these forces.

They were wonder struck by thunder, lightening, rains, wind, earth sun & moon, Akash or sky, Agni or fire, rivers, mountains etc. and considering them as divine powers, they sang their praises and themselves feeling small and helpless sought their blessings and portection. There was some sort of animism and anthropomophism in earlier days that these natural forces and even man made objects like implements, weapons etc. were living gods or as mighty human like beings and were given names as for idols to be worshipped and prayred to get prosperity and health and for protection against diseases, pestilences,draught, femines, floods and for all earthly comforts and even for good living in the next life after death. The gods of the elements were such as Indra animating Akasha or Agni animating fire and warmth Pavan residing in Vayu or air, Varuna residing in or controlling Apa or waters in the seas and rivers, Kubra or Krshiti ruling the earth or Prithvi etc. They were considered real entities or spiritual intelligences, each having its region as ruler or lord of the region. Below these principal sovereign rulers were said to be countless Devas and Devatas in descending order, all said to be 333 in number with their spouses. There was a sort of polytheism and the religious instinct was revealed in this polytheism and this was the first stage of the Vedic religion.
With more enlightnment, rationalism & religious fervour then the need was felt for a higher spirit to appeal to when the gods were all in one concept of a Vishva Deva or panthaism. This was monothism. This was based on the feeling for the infinite which penetrated the boundless and brilliant firmament of heaven, the sun, moon & the stars and so also the storms clouds, winds, the rivers the seas and the earth and in fact everything experienced. The moral qualities of beneficense omniscience, omnipotent and rightenusness were attributed to them. There was a steady advance from the physical to the personal and-from the personal to divine as manifestation of the same one divine spirit inhabitang them all. The crowd of gods and goddesses sometimes thwarting each other, was thus replaced by monotheism and the highest position, as in the later part of the Rig Veda was granted to Brahaspati, Prajapati the lord of all creatures or to Hiraynagarbha as the supreme being which was formless, impersonal, pure and passionless being addressed as He or It was the Absolute, as is thought of in the Upnishads. In fact, each Veda is composed of the three parts. The first is the Samita or the collection of Hymns or mantras in praise of the various gods, secondly the Brahamans, discussing riuals to be observed by the householders including the percepts and of religious duties. While the hymns were the creation of the poets and seers, the Brahamans were the work of the priest. In the third place were the Upnishads like Aitareya, Kena, Chandogya, Ise Taittiriya Braha-daranyka Mandukya etc. discussing philosophical thoughts and were the result of the meditatios of philosophers and great religious personalities. These were the philosophical part of each veda where the unconscious groping for unity led to the Absolute the ultimate as alluded to above as the universal spirit embodying all the gods or all that exists.

The longing of the human heart could not be satisfied with a pluralistic panthion as men asked to which god shall they pray. (Kasmi Devaya havisha Vidhema). Even monotheism was criticised, as one great god under whom the others lived does not satisfy human mind with regard to the essence of the universe. We must feel or experience the one spiritual reality and not the anthropomorphic deity or monotheism. "The spiritual reality must be one uniform, eternal, necessary, flutering about and gaily chirping is happy and enjoying himself when the first bird is amused over his childish pranks and sweetly smiles on his foolishness. In all of us is the second bird, the little self, ego or individual self or soul which is struggling in life, enjoying and suffering and which is the doer, the achiever and the player in the drama of life. There is the first bird also in us which is the true Atma which watches the doings of the little self like the 2nd bird which sometimes chides and warns and like a benevolent mother or the inner monitor checks and rebukes but being itself aloof or not concerned does not suffer and is not affected the doing of the little self or ego. This little light within is the voice of God or God in us as the true Atma, a part of the cosmic soul, like a drop in the ocean or rivers has the urge to merge in the fathomless ocean so each individual soul wishes to merge in the cosmic soul or Braham or identify with it. Such is essentially the teaching of the Upnishads about which Schopenahaur said "Upnishad had been the solace of my life and would be the solace of my death".

There is no scope for pessimism in Upnishads. The whole nature, exists for man. This life is a stage and opportunity for spiritual development and perfection. Life is no empty dream and the world is no delirium of spirit. Upnishads do not favour sacrifice, praise of God or prayer to the personal God. The true sacrifice is that the man himself, is effacing the self or ego by renunciation or by subduing his desires and keeping in check his creaturs. comforts and wordly pursuits and pleasures. One's whole life is to be one sacrament or Yajna when all the actions, feelings and thoughts be an offering to the supreme. No rigid rituals are necessary. The Brahamans or priests are described as procession of dogs, each holding, the tail of the other and chanting "om" let us eat, Om' let us drink 'Om' let us enjoy ourselves. The higher knowledge is by which the indestructible Braham is known and the vedantic doctrine of Shankra, Yoga of Patanjali and Sankhya Sashtra of Kapila can all be traced to the Upnishads. In the Taittiriya Upnishad when the son asks his father where from these beings are born, that in which they live and that in which they enter after death is Braham. The son is made to believe that the body and the smaller prana (life) manas mental processes or psyche and consciousness) vijana (knowledge and intelligence) and bliss (Anand) Blissful state of self forgetfulness and oblitration of the self are all ultimately Braham or Nirguna Braham.

The life of man is the time for preparing the soul for eternity or to join the world spirit or Braham. Man is said to be like an onion with sheaths one over the other. He is to penetrate and reach the realself. The outer vegetating body is the Unnmay Kosh, undermeith is the Pranmay Kosh or the active being full of life and zest of living, further down is the manmay Kosh or the mental processes and activities like learning, memorizing, imagination, paying attention etc. Then is the Ganay Kosh or body of knowledge acquired by thinking and reflection leading to understanding and insight into the nature of things and the reality behind»all existences. The fifth stage is the Anandmay Kosh when one rising above self and breaking all the bonds & shakls of wordly desires reaches a state of mind when renunciation, self-abnegation, self forgetfulness and self-obliteration lead to blissful existence and one is merged in the cosmic spirit or Braham and become one with it or is identified with it. This is called Yoga or joining the ultimate like a drop joining the ocean & becoming one with it. Man in his life is to struggfle and try to reach the last stage of his existence by his own efforts and Sadhana, as nobody outside him can fight his battle for him. One may suggest and show the path as a Guru does, but the disciple has to make all efforts himself, as guardianship of mind is not possible.

In the Upnishads we also find the division of the life of man or his living time or states in which he lives. The waking state, sleeping state and dreaming state are quite obvious and understandable. But there is said to be the 4th state of sound and dreamless sleep which is not unreal or non existent as one after getting up says that he had a dreamless and sound sleep such a state of mind of complete self-forgetfulness and self-destruction is called Turiya state. This transcends them all. This is not blank or nothingness or a negative calm. This state of Anandmakosh is fullness of other tendencies or states and in this state the individual soul merges with the cosmic soul for which experience each individual is to seriously apply himself as this is the ultimate goal of life and there is nothing else to achieve. This is called Moksha or self-realization or Nirvana.
We have been talking about the Vedas which were 4 in number. The Rig Veda, Yujarv Veda, Soma Veda and the Atharva Veda. The first three agree in their form, contents and language, though the Rig Veda is the chief, which was mostly the collection of the inspired songs of the Aryans after they settled in Northern Indian to preserve their precious treasure against the prayers or worshiping of many gods by the Dasus and natives in the Panjab region where they settled first. The Sama Veda Yujar Veda are mostly liturgical collection for rites, rituals ceremonies and sacrifices or Yajas. In them the freshness and simplicity of the Rig Veda was replaced by coldness and artificiality. The emphasis was on sacrifice and the supermacy was on the priests who were the organisors of the rites. In this age peoiple were more anxious about the completion of their rites and sacrifices than the perfection of their souls. They were more concerned with formal observances of rites than with the true spirit of religion, inspite of suggestions of a higher ethics and religion in the upnishads of these Vedas. There was need for a restatement of the spiritual experience, the central meaning of which was obscured by conventional piety. There was ethical necessity and need of duty of one's gods, forefathers or ancestors as there was belief in rebirth and theory of Karma. The caste distinctions also become more rigid. Though in the beginning under the ceremonialism of the Vedic religion the families of Brahmans formed a class and the kings became Kastriya. The rest were classed as the people earning and cultivating and were called vaisyas as they were originally occupational. The aboriginals and tribals" as Dasus who were serving the Aryans were called Sudras. This devision soon became hereditory though the system of caste was introduced to meet the social needs of the times. This social order was orginally to conserve the culture of the various classes, but it in reality did not help in national advancement, as it was psychologically wrong to divide people in various classes and groups or castes. Everymen and his work are enough and any other labelling was harmful.
There also was the faith in 4 division of ones' life, Brahamchariya, Grahasth, Banprasth abnd sanayas with 25 years devoted to each division or Ashrams. The caste distinction and Ashram dharam were more elaborated by Manu later with logical justification, but in the vedic period there were these division of society and of ones own life well established.

The 4th Veda was Atharveda which was for a long time was not considered as a Veda, as a different spirit runs through this Veda. If shows a compromising attitude with the so many gods and godlins worshipped by the native and primitive people of the region which the Aryans were subduing. Vedic seers did not encourage or recognise sorcery and magic, which in Atharva Veda are the main theme. The Word religion itself that the Atharva Veda represents, is doubtless, older than that of the Rigveda, though the collection of Atharva Veda is a later one. The religion of the Atharva is of the primitive, Dasyus, Chandals and aboriginals who believed in ghosts, demons, sprits, magic witchcraft and tantarism though in some parts of it there is a common element with upanishads and Brahamas. In Atharv Veda are mentioned the powers of formulas or incantations, mantras magical practices connected with marriage, initiation anointing of the King and curing of boldness and jaundice and so on abound. Shiva in Rigveda means auspicious but in Atharvada he is a god to be worshipped as the phalus. Rudra in the Rigveda is a malignant cattle destroying deity, here he is the lord of the cattle or the Pashupati. Sex also became prominent in Tantric and magical practices. The idea of Hell with its horrors and tortures was expounded. Asceticism also was eulogised and ascetics were believed to control nature by tapas or by austarities and mortification of the body. One could see people (even these days) sitting in the midst of 4 or 5 fires all round or standing on one leg or holding one arm above the head with the idea of commanding the forces of nature of subduing the gods to get things done. Such ideas could only be held by superstitious and ignorant people believing in demonology and the powers of unknown forces in their imagination away from reality and in Atharv veda truth and reality seemed to be obscure.

One may say that on the whole, the Vedic religion was dominated by prayers, worship, rituals and sacrificial fire or Yajay to prpitriates the various Gods inhabiting the natural forces and resources. The vedic polytheism was tempered with monoism more in upnishads as under the ritual songs there was to be the divine personality and a spiritual life was to be lived for liberation of the self or for self-realization with which consisted in being the Brahama himself which each individual or everything else was in its final reality. This spiritual life was to be lived with self control or by subduing the animal desires, with self-abnegation, renuncation or giving up egoism and being more altruistic benevolent with active charity and kindness. These characterised essentially the Hindu home life and these were particularly noticable in the homes where joint family prevailed.
In Hinduism there was not only the Quest for the ultimate as the goal of life but also for the practical guidance for the householder to live in the manner which could lead him to the realizations of this goal. The guidance was provided for life in the family, in the community and in the nation as a whole with duties indicated for the child, father and mother, brothers and sisters, elders and for guests. Duties were also assigned to the householder in his 4 stages or ashrams of life like Brahamcharya, Grahastha, Vanprasth and Sanyas. Duties of the Kings and his subjects and for the 4 Varnas or castes as a Brahaman, Kashtriya, Vaish & Sudra for doing what was the best in the interest of the society and in his own interest. The quest for the final reality as the goal of life has been the subject of the Veda and the Upnashids as indicated briefly above and the guidelines for the citizen to play the different roles for the sake of his duties or dharmas are indicated in the epic poems, the Mahabharata, Ramayana and also in the Dharamshastra of Manu and the Gita. A brief mention of them is called for.
The Mahabharata was complied by rishi Vyas near about the 6th or 5th century B.C. according to some authorities though some thought that it occured much earlier and concerns with the great war between the Karvs and Pandavas. We come across in the Mahabharata the polytheism of the Veda, the monism of the upnishads and the dualism of Sankhyas and the deism of Yoga. The Braham of the Upnishads becomes invested with a distinct personality and called Ishwar who was given different names as Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna for worship or Bhakti, though the impersonal absolute was still the more real of the two. In Mahabharata emphasis is on the personal god, on the Krishna or personal Vasudeva. There is also evidence of Shakti worship, as Durga was worshipped by Arjun before the battle and Durga was considered the energy drawn from Parmatma. Durga was personified as Uma the wife of Shiva as the function of creation preservation and destruction of all existences can not be possible without the help of this energy. Orignaly she was said to be the virgin goddess worshipped by the wild tribes of the Vindhayas and her name is thus borrowed from the aboriginals.

The Mahabharat is sometimes called the fifth Veda and is a work of authority on conduct of man throughout his life and for social life for the guidance of pandits, kings, worriors, workers, family members and even the weak and lowly as all wished to live a happy life by avoiding dukham or hardship and pain. The goal of human endeavour was to attain a balanced, unruffled and stable condition of mind in the face of pleasure or pain and difficulties. This was essential both for salvation and for peace on earth.

Every individual had duties to perform which was his Dharm and by living according to his Dharma could the individual reach liberation or moksha as dharma was the means and liberation the end or goal of life. The Pandit or Brahaman had duties for learning, the warrior or Kashtriya the duty of fighting for his just cause and to save others from fear and calamities. The worker or cultivator or one doing business had the duty to earn wealth for the sustenence of himself and all others. The labourer or servant had the duty to acquire knowledge and physical health. The householder had the duty to bring up healthy children and to give alms or charity freely to the mendicants and other needy persons. He was to treat the guests like gods and entertain them with courtesy and respect. In the family life the wife had equal rites with her own duty to serve her husband and to stand by him through thick and thin. The Younger had to give due respects and regard to the elders and obey them. All had to practice non-violence, true speaking, self control, honesty, trustworthiness, greedlessness, generosity, perseverance in work, faithfulness and such moral qualities and one maxim which every body must remember was "Thou shalt not do to others what is disagreable to thyself." In the event of clash in duties the example of the great has to be followed and the truly great are Atmajani or those who possess spiritual knowledge The extremes are to be avoided and a middle course is the best. In the case of transgression of the law or rule of good conduct, confession and repentence are enjoined upon to the offender. Faith in Karma or fruits of action in this life was prominent in Mahabharat as success was dependent on one's own efforts and not merely on what was done in previous life as the man had freedom of action and could modify the effects of past Karma which were like fire which could be fanned into a flame or extinguished by our own efforts.

The Mahabharat was fought, between the Kaurvas and Pandavas on the just cause to assert ones' right leniency, good sense and tolerance. To suffer from injustice was as bad as to be unjust. No Body should be allowed to ride roughshods and to trample over you but each individual has a right to live with honour and dignity and anybody denying this right should be fought till the end. Dharma is to save himself even by killing others who want to destroy him as life is continuous and one is born again after death when one only changes his, clothes, name and station. There is no sin in fighting even ones' own Kith and kin, if they don't allow you to live in peace with honour as all relations are relative and not absolute. People come and go and there is no remores in elimination of the oppressor whosoever he may be.

The Ramayana is essentially the story of the Wars of the Aryans with the then natives of India who were adopting the Aryan civilization. More specifically it is concentrated on Rama, the hero, the model of Virtue and perfection and as said to be the incarnation of Vishnu (according to some authorities), He was born to suppress the wrong dooers and to inculcate virtues in the heart of man by his own example. To a more rational being Rama was only a good man, an embodiment of all human excellence an ideal son, an ideal brother, ideal husband, ideal king and an ideal warrior so high souled and high minded as to be emulated. He was worthy of worship and was actually worshipped in so many temples thoughout the country with his consort Sita. Some may critise him for forsaking his wife who suffered so much hardship but for an ideal king who was so devoted to his subjects forsaking his wife was no great sacrifice in order to serve the masses whose welfare and good life he was duty bound to ensure.

Every year since time immorial Rama's conquest over Ravan the lusty demon who lifted away sita by deception, is celebrated in the entire country as the Dussehra festival when the effigies of Ravan along with that of his brother, Kumbhkaran and son Megnad are burnt. This is the victory of good over evil. Similary Dewali is celebrated as the festival of light to commomerate the triumphant, return home of Rama with his brother Lakshman and wife sita from his 14 years exile after killing Ravan & his supporters. His life is a saga of suffering as an obedient and dutyful son, a dear brother and a loyal husband who searched for his beloved with tears, never forgetting her never faltering in his duty to save and serve his better half. Ordinary man will not undergo so much suffering for a woman but not Rama. For these qualities as a perfect man, Rama is deified and people take a lesson from his life and worship him to inculcate his qualities in themselves. The value of Ramayana lies in presenting to us mortals, the example of one ideal human being to be copied to make our life subline here and hereafter.

A word may be said about Manu and his Dharamsutras the Manusmriti which had a great bearing on the consolidation of Hinduism as an organised religion for social guidance, if not for knowing the philosphy and the higher reality. The name of Manu even occurs in the Vedas as father Manu and he was known to exist in 1250 BC and is known to be familier with the Vedas and refers to previous legislators and traditions. The code of Manu belongs to the epic period. Manu accepts the ultimate reality as Braham or Hirangarbha out of which the world is said to evolve and the Brahamans were said to come out of its head Kashtriya out of its arms, Vaish or traders and cultivators out of the thighs and the Sudra out of the eliminatory region to explain metaphorically the caste distinctions which to Manu were ordained by God. Manu sanctified the family as the unit of society and in India the stable family is given by Manu as he thought of the husband to be one complete with his wife and offspring and without this the life of man in society was not possible. He maintained that women were created to be mothers and men to be fathers and thus the foundations of a stable and unbroken family as a social unit were laid and divorce was not known.
Social duties were to be fulfilled first and foremost and the desires which were against one's dharma had to be curbed. The Ashram Dharam of the individual in his 4 stages of life was enanciated. The Brahmachary was for learning and educating himself, the householder or Grahasti was to perform all duties as a citizen towards all concerened the Vanprasthi was to retire from home life to do social service and Sanyasi was to renounce the world and devote himself to raise the moral and cultural standard of the people by his discourses and teaching as a free lancer, or Privarajak. This Varan Ashram Dharam as indicated above was the strong foundation on which Hindu society was built up, though one could say that each individual was all the 4 castes rolled into one as one, is to be able to earn money for his upkeep & for social needs and to be able to serve by doing even menial jobs. It was a mistake of Manu to devide society in 4 castes which later became hereditary and hampered social growth in making Indian society progressive, outgoing and adventurous, though the caste system may have served some purpose to preserve the culture of each group and to meet the onslaughts of raiders, intruders, marauders and the outside invaders. But it stood in the way of creating a truely democratic polity.

The other great work which formed the strong piller of the eliffice of Hinduism was the Gita- which infact formed a part of Mahabharata, as it was in essence created on the battle field when Krishan instructed the faltering and wavering Arjun about his duty as an insulted and wronged Warrior. Later formed a beautiful book on philosophy, ethics and religion but it essentially teaches everyone the way of liberation through Bhakti or devotion to God and here to lord Krishna himself in his universal spirit and form which he revealed to Arjun who was overcome by anguish with the thought of Killing his own loved ones, Arjun was full of false compassion and he was assailed by the doubt about the reality of things and the Maya of transitory attachment to his own desires and passion and love even for those opposing and tormenting him. Lord Krishna told Arjun that as a Kashtrya it was his duty or Dharma to fight the wrong doers and not to be dismayed by thought of destorying them as life is not destroyed and men come and go and when reborn they assume different forms, appearance and position in new places of residence as one changes his clothes and name. Each as a part of Braham which is behind the objects of the world. Individual Atma and the universal self, Paramatma or Braham are one, both being of identical nature and the individual Atma is to realise its true position as a part of Braham and to merge in it or to identify with it as is the goal of life and the end of all human endeavours. This realization is by love, faith, prayer and devotion or Bhakti of the personal God in the body of Krishna, though ultimately he is the Absolute, sat, chit and Anand or reality, goodness and bliss. Devotion to God requires Unattachment to desires for sense objects and in Bhagti with prayer there is bliss and rapture due to oneness with God. Though giving predominant position to Upasana or Bhakti, Gita also avocates the path of giana (Wff) or wisdom and of selfless action or Karma for reaching the goal of liberation or self-realization which mean identification of the Atma with Braham. Gita recogonizes acquiring knowledge of external things through intellect and also grasping the ultimate principal behind the apparent, through intuition. With intuition one can see God in every thing and with concentration and meditation the real can be realized. Gita asks everybody to do Nishkam Karma or action without attachment or being bound by one's duty is to work and not to be idle and not to expect the desired results. Honest trial is success as what else can one do except trying as the results are not in our hands or under our control. In doing selfless acts, egoism is eliminated and a sense of divine is kindled. Karm marg of doing work for the sake of doing and not for results or fruits of action, leads us to a condition of heartfelt devotion to the divine.
Hinduism is based not only on speculation, beliefe, reflections, supernatural revelations, and intution but also on the use of logic, philosophical argumentation, natural methods of knowing and analytical criticism or critical reason. Atma Vidya or Wisdom of the self is known by the science of inquiry and an appeal to reason also. The systems of thought based on reason were called Darshans and these were essentially six such Dharshans which were however, not entirely seperate or isolated but interdependent. These were Vaishahak Naya, Sankhya, Yoga, Purava Mimansa and Utter Minansa to be mentioned in brief.

Vaishashak Sastra of Kanada as its name implies refers to the Vaishe or particular or the individual. This treatise was proficiated in the 3rd century B.C if not earlier. It can be called Atomic pluralism. The ways of knowing according to this treatise are perception, inference, remembrance or from memory and intuition. If deals with the imperceptible individual souls or the atoms in which selfhood is retained as independent, as if in pigeonhole. The souls and substances are atoms or solid facts, according to the atomic theory of the Universe of Vaishesk. The earth, water, light, air, akash, time space, soul and manas or mind are 9 realities according to this Darshan.

Compromising all corporal and incorporal things, it is not materialism but a realistic scheme accepting souls as non-material. The souls or selves are inferred from consciousness of pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition feelings, knowledge and various functions going on inside the body and consciousness cannot be the property of the body, sense organs and manas or mind which are material in nature. Souls or selves are infinit and eternal and each soul has it own mind and distinctiveness of the mind. Each individuals mind is unique distinct and particular not to be confused for any other and is formed or developed under the unique circumstances under which each individual lives. Apart from the individual soul there is the supreme soul or Ishwar who is not the creator of the world as the 9 realities are self-existing and self-sustaining but He is the presiding lord over the atoms, as God or Ishwar is the efficient cause of the world as the atom is the material cause. God does not have a body but the soul resides in a body which is moved by the soul. God is not the creator of the world since the soul and atoms are co-etemal with Him. He is, however, omniscient and omnipotent and governs the universe. He sets the world under certain laws and lets it go & is not entangled in the cycle of Existence nor is affected by it.

Each soul has to try for its release by virtuous acts, spiritual insight, wisdom, self-control, non-violence, benevolence, truthfulness and all such moral virtues and God will not help. There is to be rebirth till final freedom but it is attained which is not annihilation, as the self or soul is eternal but it is to live in its own natural state of near unconscious condition of almost like a stone, as all qualities of suffering will be destoryed, though according to Nyaya Darshan this state of freedom is one of bliss and wisdom.

The Nyaya Dharshan of Gautam is said to belong to the 3rd century B.C. like Vaiserhak. It believes individual souls as real beings interacting with objective things in the environment as consciousness in the result of non-self acting on self. The Nyaya shastra believes in the plurality of individual souls, in a personal God and in an atomic universe in which exist the objects or things with their qualities and relations. Perception, conception or apprehension, intuition or insight, inference (as when we see clouds, we may infer coming of rain) or induction, upama or comparison, authority of others who know, tarke or argument, are the main ways of knowing. Nayaya does not recognise memory or remembering as a separate source of knowledge like the Vaishasik. In memory there is no new knowledge but only reproduction of the past experiences.

Nayaya like the Vaishesk accept the world of nature as composed of external and causless atom, existing independently of others. It also accepts the reality of Akash, time and space as substantive realities with some qualities which are inherent. The world is not the result of chance and the law of causality can not be denied. The souls also are substantive beings having qualities of desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain, cognition, feeling etc, and notion of I' proves them and all are separate & different. The soul is different from the manas which is only the instrument by which the soul thinks and the manas is material or atomic the soul or self has consciousness but it can also be unconscious (Jada). The soul seeks freedom from pain & to be blissful or to attain Moksha in perfect tranquitity for this Sansar of worldly desires which is cause of suffering is to be escaped from by meditation and by overcoming a sense of separateness. Rightousness, reflaction self-study and Yoga practices. Bhakti also is the means to secure peace and true happiness. Nayay says that human acts produce results under the control and cooperation of God and so Nayay is theistic. Apart from the infinite human souls there is the supreme soul or God who is omniscient, omnipotent by which he guides and regulates the universe but does not create atoms which are self existence Human souls and supreme soul or God are not same or one Atma as in Vedanta. Atoms, souls & God are co-eternal and man does not hold communion with God as God is outside man and the universe. But Nayay will have to revise its conception of God if it is to meet the highest religious instincts of humanity. According to Nayaya when all souls are redeemed or are reaching Moksha on liberation Sansara will disappear and so also lordship of God will come to an end.

The third Darshan is the sankhya system of Kapil, said to be known one century before Buddha and it believes not in pluralism or trinity but dualism of Purush and Prakrity, that is in the self and the outer world. The universe is not the creation of God, but the result of the interaction between infinite souls and the ever-active Prakrity or potentiality of nature like the nurse of all generation. The causes of generation are efficient and material, when the material cause is inside, the efficient cause exerts influence from outside as for example we must beat the paddy to get the grain or press the seed to get the oil. The Purush or the self or the soul is the efficient cause and the objective existence is the material cause. The soul in all living beings is the same. This is the Atma which is entangled in the Prakriti or Mhat and tries for liberation. The liberation is by knowledge virtue, giving up egoism and being free from desire, hatred, and fear and also by renunciation and unattachment. In liberation the purusha is ecstatic consciousness, and release and it rests in its own form in of Braham. This state is reached after many births. Sankhya does not invoke the aid of any God and thus it does not uphold theism as according to this school of thought the reality of God cannot be established by logical proofs. Liberation is by one's own efforts.
The similar philosophy is taught in the Yoga Darshan of Patanjali which has eight parts or aspects. These are philosophical tenents, the goal of which is human liberation and these offer practical steps and techniques for mental balance and inner happiness which means ecstasy experienced as when one realises his true self. In Yoga philosophy the self or Purush and Prakriti or the outer world are taken as two real entities. The self is entangled in the worldy existence and is to be liberated or extricated from this cobwel. The wordly existence or prakriti is no hostile force but exists for his sake and like a nurse it nourishes the self and leads him to the bath of self liberation.

Patanjali begins by saying that one comes to yoga after he has enjoyed life or Kama, done his duty as a householder and earned money for his livelihood. In other words one is qualified to practice yoga for liberation after having done all this as a hungry man can not practice yoga.

Yoga means spiritual absorption by mastery of mental operations or by control of mind which is done by practice and then it becomes a habit. This control of mental operations and spiritual absorption lead to concious Smadhi and then to unconscious smadhi which means cosmic consciousness. In conscious smadhi the self as thinker and the object of thought are apart as two entities but in unconscious smadhi they are united when this self or purush stands alone in its effluesence and glory after absorbing the cosmic existence or prakriti is itself.

The outer world or prakriti is composed of the one power or energy called the pradhan or root matter and the experiencer is the self. The self is exterected from the entengling outer world by the techniques of restraint observance, posture, breath control abstraction, or non attachment to the sense experience by concentration and medication which finally lead to spiritual absorption or smadhi. The restraints or Yama are harmlessness, truthfulness, no theft, abstinence and continence or nonacceptance of gifts from others. Observances or Nyana are purification, contententment, penance, study and submission to God or Ishware. Postures or Asan means to have steady and comfortable position in sitting, standing, lying down or reclining, Breath control or pranayam is control of experation and inspiration to wash away impurities of the lungs. Non-attachement or abstraction called Pratihar means renunciation or withdrawing from the objects of satisfaction by becoming indifferent to them and by avoiding involvement in them. Concentration or Dharna is to confine the mind in one point, place or object may it be navel nosetip, tongue or anything outside as an image statue or idol, is kept , at one place for serious thinking. The seventh technique is meditation or Dhyan which is continuous of the cognition not interfered with by any other cognition. This is uniform and constant succession of the same one cognition. With concentration and meditation and with great exertion one acquires sidhies or occult powers, some Yogies succeed to have super-normal powers of being unaffected by ice or fire. He has as .inrutive knowledge of happenings far off, telepathy, or power to hear at a distance, knowing the past life, transmission of thought to somebody, making the body invisible and leaving ones' body to enter another etc. But these occult powers possess no spiritual values and are rather interferences in the path of liberation. These powers are like making the man reach the upper story when the stairs are removed. Finally there is spiritual absorption or samadhi, which can be conscious smadhi when the thinker as self and the object of thinking are apart. Smadhi can be unconcious also as Nirveej Smadhi, where there is no objective consciousness of the known or the not known, but only the seer or purush as pure being remains as the objective reality or Prakriti leaving aside its attachment moves towards the self as the generalised spectacle and is absorbed by the self which stands in its glory and purity. This is liberation or emancipation of the self.

When the pure self or Purush has thus fulfilled its purpose of both experiencing and emancipation it reaches liberation or Kavelaym or Moksha. This is in assence Patanjali teaching.

The other philosphical system is that of jamini and is called Purva Mimansa which is said to belong to the 4th century BC. It deals more with rituals and worship of vedic gods and is polytheistic. Perception inference and testimoney of an authority are accepted as the sources of knowledge and not intuition by which the yogis are said to apprehend things and happenings in the future or at great distance. Comparison and implication are also the methods of knowledge. The soul or self survives the body after death and enjoy the rewards in another world. The performer of sacrifices and a Virtuousman or Atma goes to heaven. The atma or soul is also pervailing or vibhu and not atomic or Anu and directs the body. These are infinite souls as there are varities of experiences in the body of each individual. The soul or self is inferred from self consciousness and the objective world is inferred from perception which arises only when there is contact with real objects.

The goal of life is not only pleasure or happiness of the world but also the true happiness of the self or soul which lies in self-denial and in doing ones' duty or Dharma and doing nitya Dharma like sandhiya and performing sacrifices. Some mimansiks hold that sudras are allowed to performe sacrifices like the upper classes but gamini does not approve of it as he holds that sudras cannot read vedas and so also they cannot perform sacrifices. Liberation lies in knowing the self or Atma for which not only Karma but gnam is essential. Purva Minansa believes in the existence of many gods to be worshipped as in the Vedas and it does not postulate any supreme power, though it does not deny the existence of God but ignore him. It argues that God cannot create the world as if he had a body for creating to gave him his own the body and so there is required to be another creator of it. But later writers smuggled in God as the divine principle for worship and upasana, as it was thought that if the sacrifice was performed in honour of the supreme lord it will lead to the highest good.

Purva Mimansa however did not present a satisfactory system of philosophy. Its view of the universe is incomplete and it does not solve the problem of ultimate reality and its relation to the world., of souls and matter. Its ethics was mechanical as in perforing sactifices and its religion was unsound as it did not provide a supreme God on whom one could depend and surrender himself to in sorrow and suffering. This was done better in monotheism of vaishna Saivas and Saktas which will be mentioned a little later.

The final system of thought which was the culmination of the various view points was the vedanta (or the end of the vedas) believing in one reality or Braham underlying all existences. The vedanta sutra was created by Badrayan Rishi who was sometimes identified with Vyasa and Indian scholars hold the view that this sutra was composed in the period from 500 to 200 BC and according to max Muller it was existing earlier to the Gita and Mahabharat. This system of thought was vigorously commented upon and propogated thoughtfully expounded by Shankaracharya in the 6th C.A.D when Buddhism had its hold in India.

According to this system, the fundamental reality is one, the world spirit or cosmic energy out of which all appearances emerged. This is the Braham, the substratum or the support of all inanimate or animate existences. The fire and light in the sun, velocity or speed and power in the wind the coolness and cleaning quality in the water, the hardness and colour & smell in earthly things the space in the sky or Akash and the power or energy in the heavenly bodies are all the powers of God or are God itself. This means that the outer world which is made of these elements or forces as Prakriti is in essence God Himself and so God and the world of existences are one and the same thing. Reality is ultimately one in varying forms. Reality or Braham cannot be described, as in that case it is to be compared with something else which will mean something different from it. The reality is described as not this, "Nete Neti" when asked as to what it is. The individual selves or souls are in essence the same as part of this cosmic energy and being circumscribed as residing in the individual body they appear to be different. Material or outer thing affect us as nothing can affect us unless it is of the same nature as the self. The appearances or existences are in reality not the things as they appear as underneath they are the same essence and this is the meaning of Maya. The world is not an illusion and is not nothingness but things also are not what they appear to be as they are all made of one basic reality. Modern Physics upholds this point of view as everything is ultimately reduceable to atoms and atoms are in ultimate analysis the charges of energy or the cosmic energy which is nothing but God or Braham. The individual self is also a part or the self a charge of this cosmic energy or Braham which when known by means of liberation, or self-realization which' is said to be the goal of life and the end of all human endoveours.

The method of this liberation are as enunciated in the Yog Darshan already described and this is the final solution of all problems of existences, Hinduism is very liberal and not so set and rigid as there is hardly any point of view or philosophical thought which is not found in it from rank materialism to absolute idealism. There are said to be 16 schools of thought in Hinduism and each is more or less complete in its metaphysical epistomological teleogical and cosmological thinking and it is thus accomodating all moods, temperaments and ways of thinking or ideologies and all can feel quite confortable in Hinduism the materialist like charvaks e.g. going to the extreme believe that man is existing in this world for pleasure and not for any spiritual gains and it is all right if you drink Ghee even by incurring debt as there is end or finality of all in this very life as when man dies, the earthly elements return and relapse into the earth and all is over. Death is the end of all. There is no need of virtues, no need of control on passions or instincts, no restriction or resignation or severity of life and no need of benevolence and love. Everybody is independent as there is no authority of any body external and foreign. Such a view can appeal to the reckless hedonists of whom there is no dearth in this great world. Likewise in Hinduism are also idolators who worship many types of idols, idols of Ram & Sita, Krishna & Radha of buddha and Mahavir, Siva, Vishnu, Mahadeva and so many Devis or Shakti like Shitla, Vaishno Devi, Naina Devi, Kali, Durga, Chandi Mata, etc. etc. Beliefs in mantras, tonas witchcraft, sorcery, superstitions of all sorts abound and people just care for rituals, rites and formal ringing of bells, blowing of conches in worshipping the idols and their religious purpose is served. Some mechanically read through the Ramayan, Gita, Hanuman Chalisa and other scripturs and that is all that they think is required to be religious even if they indulge in black marketing,corruption, cheating, swindling, over charing and all other ignoble practices as they think that these were essential for their business and had nothing to do with their religion life, as the worshipping the idol was enough to please the deity and for ensuring a comfortable living even in the next world.

Apart from such mechanical, formal and arbitrary religious life many well meaning and serious thinkers are not satisfied with the dry absolutism and their religious need or religious instinct is satisfied by submitting to a personal God or to His incarnation with humility, self-submission, devotion and love. Ordinarily man wants some tangible reality to pray to not formly but in right earnest & to worship the deity in concrete as the representative of the power, shakti or god. Some thinker like Ramanuj, Mahadev, Vallabh, Nimbardka and others founded their religious systems called Seivism Vaishnavism, Shaktism which have concrete and definite incarnations of God for prayers and worship.

The religious instinct of Ramanuj in the 11th C, A.D. seized on the concrete idea of God as a person as opposed to Shankar's absolutism. To Ramanuj God reveals to man through creation, through prophets and through incarnations and one can know God through intuition, meditation and devotion or Bhakti. Human self or soul is proved by the consciousness, and thinking in man testifies to the existence of objects different from the self and the yearning in man for a saviour or radeemer and a being for self-submission, devotion self-surrender and love prove the personal God or deity in any form. Man can not rest in peace unless he open his heart to the divine being,Tying prostrate before him and begging his pardon for his lapses and promises to be better in future. Unless he is sure of this existence he gropes in the dark and reaches the dead end of a blind alley with no opening and is thus suffocated According to Ramanuj the Nirgun Braham of Shankracharya which stares at us with frozen eyes regadless of our selfless devotion and silent suffering is not the God of religious insight. He is a blank, a void & is like the mare of Orlando which has every perfection except one small defect of being dead. The supreme spirit was identified by Ramanuj as Vishnu which according to him included Brahma & Shiva. Salvation of the jiva or self is not through jana. or knowledge and Karma or action, but through devotion or Bhakti or complete resignation to God with love, reverence & worship.

This theism of Ramanuj appeared in various form as Vaishnavism, shaivism or Saktism. They believe in the existence of God, spirits or individual souls and the outer world or Prakriti. Brahma is said to be the creator Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer. Some believe. Shiva as more virile includes Braham and Vishnu. Shakti is Uma the wife of Shiva. She is the real power in different temples in cocrete from abd us the real shakti of the world.

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